Vitamin E and Carcinogenesis
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| Assignment Type | Journal Article |
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| Subject | Health And Medicine, General |
| Academic Level | Graduate - Doctoral / PhD |
| Citation Style | APA |
| Length | 6 pages |
| Word Count | 2,052 |
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Abstract
Vitamin E is one of the most researched compounds in the medical community because of what is believed to be its ability to prevent and effectively treat cancer. However, simply taking large amounts of vitamin E is not likely to be effective at preventing and reducing the risk of cancer. There are eight forms of vitamin E, of which gamma tocophorol and tocotriencols have shown the greatest promises in effectively treating and preventing cancer. Gamma tocophorol may be most effective at treating prostate cancer in men, but more research is needed regarding taking this form of vitamin E as a dietary supplement in humans. In comparison, Tocotriencols may be even more effective than gamma tocophorol because of greater cellular accumulation. This is particularly true in the treatment of breast cancer because of estrogen receptor signaling. For both types of vitamin E, additional research is needed that involves human trials to understand the relationship between taking vitamin E as a dietary supplement, the amount needed, and the long-term benefits.
Introduction
Herbert M. Evans discovered vitamin E in his laboratory at the University of California, Berkley in 1922 (Packer, Weber & rimbach, 2001). Since that time, vitamin E has become one of the most researched compounds within the medical community because of the indication that one of more of the eight forms of vitamin E has properties that can effectively treat and even prevent the formation of cancer within the body (Moyad, Brumfield & Pienta, 1999; Aggarwal, Sundaram, Prasad & Kannappan, 2010). Gamma tocophorol and tocotriencols in general are often discussed within the medical literature as providing the greatest opportunities for the reduction in cancer cells and the successful treatment of cancer (National Institutes of Health, 2011). These types of vitamin E have shown promise in treating a variety of cancers, including prostate cancer in men and breast cancer in women (Jordan, 2002). The purpose of this paper is to examine some of the existing research regarding the potential benefits of gamma tocophorol and tocotriencols in relation to cancer treatment. Within this review of the literature, issues are discussed about how these forms of vitamin E may be effective at treating cancer, as well as areas in which further research is needed.
Vitamin E and Cancer
Before discussing the research that has shown the benefits of Gamma tocophorol and tocotriencols in the treatment of cancer, it is important to briefly note the somewhat negative findings associated with alpha tocophorol and cancer treatment. Specifically, research involving human trials has found an increased risk of stroke in relation to taking high doses of alpha tocophorol during cancer treatment (National Institutes of Health, 2011). Other research has found that the use of alpha tocophorol in cancer treatment does not inhibit the growth of cancer cells, which has been found to occur with the use of both gamma tocophorol and tocotriencols (Jordan, 2002). Even beyond the problems that have been found involving the use of alpha tocophorol, other research has suggested that taking too much vitamin E can have pro-oxidant properties as opposed to anti-oxidant properties to reduce cancer cell formation (Brown, Morrice & Duthie, 1997). Taking too much vitamin E may actually create a set of conditions in the body that results in cancer cell formation occurring that would not have otherwise taken place. The warning that seems appropriate is that vitamin E at any dosage should not be viewed as a way of reducing the risk of cancer, or reducing cancer cells that have already formed. Even with the types of vitamin E that have shown great promise in the prevention and treatment of cancer, caution should be taken to ensure that too much vitamin E is not taken in the belief that any amount of the substance is beneficial.
Gamma Tocophorol in Cancer Treatment
Research has indicated that gamma tocophorol, which is one of the forms of vitamin E, has anti-inflammatory properties that may be important in preventing a variety of diseases such as cancer and cardiovascular disease (Jiang, Elseon-Schwab, Courtemanche & Ames, 2000). Research involving prostate cancer has shown that increased levels of intake of gamma tocophorol were associated with a reduced risk of prostate cancer among men (Jordan, 2002). A problem that has been raised within the academic literature, however, regarding the use of gamma tocophorol in the treatment and prevention of cancer is that much of the research involving this form of vitamin E has been conducted using animal or in vitro studies (Dietrich, Traber, Jacques, Cross, Hu & Block, 2006). While the use of gamma tocophorol in animals or in vitro may indeed reduce the spread of cancer cells, the same may not be true in human, particularly if the gamma tocophorol is taken as a dietary supplement. More research is needed to determine whether gamma tocophorol is indeed related to a reduced risk of cancer when it is taken as a dietary supplement in humans.
In fact, the issue of taking gamma tocophorol as a dietary supplement is somewhat confusing at the present time based on the studies that have been condcuted. Research has suggested that as compared to the use of alpha tocophorol in the prevention of prostate cancer in men, a dosage of gamma tocophorol that was 1,000 less than the dosage of alpha tocophorol resulted in a reduced risk of developing this form of cancer (Jordon, 2002). However, information from the same area of research suggested that the protections against the development of cancer cells in men only occurred with very high dosages of gamma tocophorol. While a much lower dosage of gamma tocophorol was needed to achieve reductions in prostate cancer, the dosages that were needed were still considered high in terms of vitamin E intake.
While the intake of gamma tocophorol as a dietary supplement may indeed reduce the risk of cancer development, particularly in the form of prostate cancer in men, more research is clearly needed. Most of the research involving gamma tocophorol involved in vitro or animal studies (Dietrich, Traber, Jacques, Cross, Hu & Block, 2006). The limited research involving actual humans suggests that a much higher level of gamma tocophorol in dietary form would be necessary in order to achieve the full benefits from gamma tocophorol’s anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant properties (Jordan, 2002). Based on these conflicting results and characterizations of the potential benefits of gamma tocophorol, more research is needed about how gamma tocophorol might reduce or prevent cancer, and exactly how it would need to be received into the body in order to be effective.
Tocotriencols in Cancer Treatment
As compared to tocophorols, tocotriencols have been found to be much more potent in terms of the prevention and reproduction of cancerous cells in the body (Sylvester & Shah, 2005). Part of the reason that tocotriencols have been found to be better at preventing and reducing the reproduction of cancer cells in the body is because of greater cellular accumulation. Tocotriencols are more likely than tocophorols to achieve higher levels of accumulation at the cellular level. Because of the greater cellular accumulation that occurs on the part of tocotriencols as compared to tocophorols, the cell reproduction cycle may be inhibited. This means that cancer cells are not able to reproduce as rapidly as might otherwise occur.
In addition, the greater cellular accumulation of tocotriencols may also result in mitochondrial toxicity and apoptosis, which results in the reduction of cancer cell reproduction where it has already begun, as well as the prevention of new cancer cells forming (Viola, Pilolli, Piroddi, Pierpaoli, Orlando, Provinciali, Betti, Mazzini & Galli, 2012). The intake of tocotriencols may not only have the ability to reduce the reproduction of cancer cells, but also the ability to prevent the development of cancer cells by inhibiting the cell reproduction cycle. It has been noted that tocotriencols target different molecular structures than tocopherols. Specifically, the anti-inflammatory properties of tocotriencols have been found to suppress the transcription factor NF-kB, which has been linked to tumorigensis and inhibition of HMG-CoA reductase, mammalian DNA polymerases, and some protein tyrosine kinases (Aggarwal, Sundaram, Prasad & Kannappan, 2010). Because of the unique anti-inflammatory properties and targeting that occurs with tocotriencols, patients suffering from various types of cancers, including breast cancers, may be able to take a lower dosage of tocotriencols as compared to tocopherols, and achieve better results. This would seem to be important considering the research that has indicated that higher levels of vitamin E consumption can has been associated with increased levels of stroke and pro-oxidant properties (Brown, Morrice & Duthie, 1997; Jordan, 2002).
Furthermore, research has suggested that for women, taking tocotriencols as a dietary supplement may reduce the risk of developing breast cancer (Sylvester, Kaddoumi, Nazzal & El Sayed, 2010). Part of the benefit of tocotriencols is indeed related to the lower dosages that are needed in order to achieve the anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer properties. At the same time, research has indicated that tocotriencols may actually increase the natural immune functions and immune responses in the body (Nesaretnam, Meganathan, Veerasenan & Selvaduray, 2012). The reason for this may be that tocotriencols increase the amount of estrogen receptor signaling that takes place. Once again, tocotriencols may not only have the ability to directly impact cancer cell production and reproduction, but also to increase natural processes within the body at the cellular level to allow cancer cell reproduction from occurring.
Finally, research has also indicated that a combination of tocotriencols with tamoxifen, which is currently the standard treatment in patients with estrogen receptor positive tumors, may prolong the life of women with breast cancer (Nesaretnam, Meganathan, Veerasenan & Selvaduray, 2012). The benefit that may occur in using tocotriencols and tamoxifen together is that most patients develop a resistance to tamoxifen. The combination of tocotriencols and tamoxifen may enhance the benefits of both substances, while reducing the problems that occur once patients develop tamoxifen resistance.
Conclusion
The research that has been reviewed has suggested that both gamma tocopherol and tocotrienols have anti-inflammatory properties that can reduce cancer production and reproduction in the body. However, the research suggests that tocotrienols may have greater properties to reduce the risk of cancer development and reduce the spread of cancer cells, especially with breast cancer in women. The reason for the superior nature of tocotrienols in the prevention and treatment of breast cancer may involve its interaction with estrogen reception signaling. Even with the research that has been reviewed, much more research is needed about the specific dosages of these types of vitamin E in terms of taking them as dietary supplements. Even more, much of the research that exists involves in vitro or animal studies, which certainly indicates the need for greater research in humans. What does seem clear is that gamma tocopherol and tocotrienols are safer and provide a higher level of benefit in terms of cancer prevention and treatment than alpha tocopherol.
References
Aggarwal, B. B., Sundaram, C., Prasad, S. & Kannappan, R. (2010). Tocotrienols, the vitamin E
of the 21st century: its potential against cancer and other chronic diseases. Biochemical Pharmacology, 80(11), 1613-1631.
Dietrich, M., Traber, M. G., Jacques, P. F., Cross, C. E., Hu, Y. & Block, G. (2006). Does γ-
Tocopherol play a role in the primary prevention of heart disease and cancer? A review. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 25(4), 292-299.
Jiang, Q., Elson-Schwab, I., Courtemanche, C. & Ames, B. N. (2000). Gamma-tocopherol and
its major metabolite, in contrast to alpha-tocopherol, inhibit cyclooxygenase activity in macrophages and epithelial cells. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 97(21), 11494-11499.
Jordan, K. G. (2002). What’s Wrong with Vitamin E? Life Extension. Retrieved from:
Moyad, M. A., Brumfield, S. K. & Pienta, K. J. (1999). Vitamin E, alpha- and gamma-
tocopherol, and prostate cancer. Seminars in Urologic Oncology, 17(2), 85-90.
National Institutes of Health. (2011). Dietary Supplement Fact Sheet: Vitamin E. Retrieved
Nesaretnam, K., Meganthan, P., Veerasenan, S. D. & Selvadurary, K. R. (2012). Tocotrienols
and breast cancer: the evidence to date. Genes Nutr, 7, 3-9.
Packer, L. Weber, S. U. & Rimbach, G. (2001). Molecular aspects of alpha-tocotrienol
antioxidant action and cell signaling. Journal of Nutrition, 131(2), 369S-373S.
Sylvester, P. W. & Shah, S. J. (2005). Mechanisms mediating the antiproliferative and apoptotic
effects of vitamin E in mammary cancer cells. Frontiers in Bioscience, 10, 699-709.
Sylvester, P. W., Kaddoumi, A., Nazzal, S. & El Sayed, K. A. (2010). The value of tocotrienols
in the prevention and treatment of cancer. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 29(3), 3245-3335.
Viola, V., Pilolli, F., Piroddi, M., Pierpaoli, E., Orlando, F., Provinciali, M., Betti, M., Mazzini,
F. & Galli, F. (2012). Why tocotrienols work better: insights into the in vitro anti-cancer mechanism of vitamin E. Genes Nutr, 7, 29-41.
Vitamin E is one of the most researched compounds in the medical community because of what is believed to be its ability to prevent and effectively treat cancer. However, simply taking large amounts of vitamin E is not likely to be effective at preventing and reducing the risk of cancer. There are eight forms of vitamin E, of which gamma tocophorol and tocotriencols have shown the greatest promises in effectively treating and preventing cancer. Gamma tocophorol may be most effective at treating prostate cancer in men, but more research is needed regarding taking this form of vitamin E as a dietary supplement in humans. In comparison, Tocotriencols may be even more effective than gamma tocophorol because of greater cellular accumulation. This is particularly true in the treatment of breast cancer because of estrogen receptor signaling. For both types of vitamin E, additional research is needed that involves human trials to understand the relationship between taking vitamin E as a dietary supplement, the amount needed, and the long-term benefits.
Introduction
Herbert M. Evans discovered vitamin E in his laboratory at the University of California, Berkley in 1922 (Packer, Weber & rimbach, 2001). Since that time, vitamin E has become one of the most researched compounds within the medical community because of the indication that one of more of the eight forms of vitamin E has properties that can effectively treat and even prevent the formation of cancer within the body (Moyad, Brumfield & Pienta, 1999; Aggarwal, Sundaram, Prasad & Kannappan, 2010). Gamma tocophorol and tocotriencols in general are often discussed within the medical literature as providing the greatest opportunities for the reduction in cancer cells and the successful treatment of cancer (National Institutes of Health, 2011). These types of vitamin E have shown promise in treating a variety of cancers, including prostate cancer in men and breast cancer in women (Jordan, 2002). The purpose of this paper is to examine some of the existing research regarding the potential benefits of gamma tocophorol and tocotriencols in relation to cancer treatment. Within this review of the literature, issues are discussed about how these forms of vitamin E may be effective at treating cancer, as well as areas in which further research is needed.
Vitamin E and Cancer
Before discussing the research that has shown the benefits of Gamma tocophorol and tocotriencols in the treatment of cancer, it is important to briefly note the somewhat negative findings associated with alpha tocophorol and cancer treatment. Specifically, research involving human trials has found an increased risk of stroke in relation to taking high doses of alpha tocophorol during cancer treatment (National Institutes of Health, 2011). Other research has found that the use of alpha tocophorol in cancer treatment does not inhibit the growth of cancer cells, which has been found to occur with the use of both gamma tocophorol and tocotriencols (Jordan, 2002). Even beyond the problems that have been found involving the use of alpha tocophorol, other research has suggested that taking too much vitamin E can have pro-oxidant properties as opposed to anti-oxidant properties to reduce cancer cell formation (Brown, Morrice & Duthie, 1997). Taking too much vitamin E may actually create a set of conditions in the body that results in cancer cell formation occurring that would not have otherwise taken place. The warning that seems appropriate is that vitamin E at any dosage should not be viewed as a way of reducing the risk of cancer, or reducing cancer cells that have already formed. Even with the types of vitamin E that have shown great promise in the prevention and treatment of cancer, caution should be taken to ensure that too much vitamin E is not taken in the belief that any amount of the substance is beneficial.
Gamma Tocophorol in Cancer Treatment
Research has indicated that gamma tocophorol, which is one of the forms of vitamin E, has anti-inflammatory properties that may be important in preventing a variety of diseases such as cancer and cardiovascular disease (Jiang, Elseon-Schwab, Courtemanche & Ames, 2000). Research involving prostate cancer has shown that increased levels of intake of gamma tocophorol were associated with a reduced risk of prostate cancer among men (Jordan, 2002). A problem that has been raised within the academic literature, however, regarding the use of gamma tocophorol in the treatment and prevention of cancer is that much of the research involving this form of vitamin E has been conducted using animal or in vitro studies (Dietrich, Traber, Jacques, Cross, Hu & Block, 2006). While the use of gamma tocophorol in animals or in vitro may indeed reduce the spread of cancer cells, the same may not be true in human, particularly if the gamma tocophorol is taken as a dietary supplement. More research is needed to determine whether gamma tocophorol is indeed related to a reduced risk of cancer when it is taken as a dietary supplement in humans.
In fact, the issue of taking gamma tocophorol as a dietary supplement is somewhat confusing at the present time based on the studies that have been condcuted. Research has suggested that as compared to the use of alpha tocophorol in the prevention of prostate cancer in men, a dosage of gamma tocophorol that was 1,000 less than the dosage of alpha tocophorol resulted in a reduced risk of developing this form of cancer (Jordon, 2002). However, information from the same area of research suggested that the protections against the development of cancer cells in men only occurred with very high dosages of gamma tocophorol. While a much lower dosage of gamma tocophorol was needed to achieve reductions in prostate cancer, the dosages that were needed were still considered high in terms of vitamin E intake.
While the intake of gamma tocophorol as a dietary supplement may indeed reduce the risk of cancer development, particularly in the form of prostate cancer in men, more research is clearly needed. Most of the research involving gamma tocophorol involved in vitro or animal studies (Dietrich, Traber, Jacques, Cross, Hu & Block, 2006). The limited research involving actual humans suggests that a much higher level of gamma tocophorol in dietary form would be necessary in order to achieve the full benefits from gamma tocophorol’s anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant properties (Jordan, 2002). Based on these conflicting results and characterizations of the potential benefits of gamma tocophorol, more research is needed about how gamma tocophorol might reduce or prevent cancer, and exactly how it would need to be received into the body in order to be effective.
Tocotriencols in Cancer Treatment
As compared to tocophorols, tocotriencols have been found to be much more potent in terms of the prevention and reproduction of cancerous cells in the body (Sylvester & Shah, 2005). Part of the reason that tocotriencols have been found to be better at preventing and reducing the reproduction of cancer cells in the body is because of greater cellular accumulation. Tocotriencols are more likely than tocophorols to achieve higher levels of accumulation at the cellular level. Because of the greater cellular accumulation that occurs on the part of tocotriencols as compared to tocophorols, the cell reproduction cycle may be inhibited. This means that cancer cells are not able to reproduce as rapidly as might otherwise occur.
In addition, the greater cellular accumulation of tocotriencols may also result in mitochondrial toxicity and apoptosis, which results in the reduction of cancer cell reproduction where it has already begun, as well as the prevention of new cancer cells forming (Viola, Pilolli, Piroddi, Pierpaoli, Orlando, Provinciali, Betti, Mazzini & Galli, 2012). The intake of tocotriencols may not only have the ability to reduce the reproduction of cancer cells, but also the ability to prevent the development of cancer cells by inhibiting the cell reproduction cycle. It has been noted that tocotriencols target different molecular structures than tocopherols. Specifically, the anti-inflammatory properties of tocotriencols have been found to suppress the transcription factor NF-kB, which has been linked to tumorigensis and inhibition of HMG-CoA reductase, mammalian DNA polymerases, and some protein tyrosine kinases (Aggarwal, Sundaram, Prasad & Kannappan, 2010). Because of the unique anti-inflammatory properties and targeting that occurs with tocotriencols, patients suffering from various types of cancers, including breast cancers, may be able to take a lower dosage of tocotriencols as compared to tocopherols, and achieve better results. This would seem to be important considering the research that has indicated that higher levels of vitamin E consumption can has been associated with increased levels of stroke and pro-oxidant properties (Brown, Morrice & Duthie, 1997; Jordan, 2002).
Furthermore, research has suggested that for women, taking tocotriencols as a dietary supplement may reduce the risk of developing breast cancer (Sylvester, Kaddoumi, Nazzal & El Sayed, 2010). Part of the benefit of tocotriencols is indeed related to the lower dosages that are needed in order to achieve the anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer properties. At the same time, research has indicated that tocotriencols may actually increase the natural immune functions and immune responses in the body (Nesaretnam, Meganathan, Veerasenan & Selvaduray, 2012). The reason for this may be that tocotriencols increase the amount of estrogen receptor signaling that takes place. Once again, tocotriencols may not only have the ability to directly impact cancer cell production and reproduction, but also to increase natural processes within the body at the cellular level to allow cancer cell reproduction from occurring.
Finally, research has also indicated that a combination of tocotriencols with tamoxifen, which is currently the standard treatment in patients with estrogen receptor positive tumors, may prolong the life of women with breast cancer (Nesaretnam, Meganathan, Veerasenan & Selvaduray, 2012). The benefit that may occur in using tocotriencols and tamoxifen together is that most patients develop a resistance to tamoxifen. The combination of tocotriencols and tamoxifen may enhance the benefits of both substances, while reducing the problems that occur once patients develop tamoxifen resistance.
Conclusion
The research that has been reviewed has suggested that both gamma tocopherol and tocotrienols have anti-inflammatory properties that can reduce cancer production and reproduction in the body. However, the research suggests that tocotrienols may have greater properties to reduce the risk of cancer development and reduce the spread of cancer cells, especially with breast cancer in women. The reason for the superior nature of tocotrienols in the prevention and treatment of breast cancer may involve its interaction with estrogen reception signaling. Even with the research that has been reviewed, much more research is needed about the specific dosages of these types of vitamin E in terms of taking them as dietary supplements. Even more, much of the research that exists involves in vitro or animal studies, which certainly indicates the need for greater research in humans. What does seem clear is that gamma tocopherol and tocotrienols are safer and provide a higher level of benefit in terms of cancer prevention and treatment than alpha tocopherol.
References
Aggarwal, B. B., Sundaram, C., Prasad, S. & Kannappan, R. (2010). Tocotrienols, the vitamin E
of the 21st century: its potential against cancer and other chronic diseases. Biochemical Pharmacology, 80(11), 1613-1631.
Dietrich, M., Traber, M. G., Jacques, P. F., Cross, C. E., Hu, Y. & Block, G. (2006). Does γ-
Tocopherol play a role in the primary prevention of heart disease and cancer? A review. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 25(4), 292-299.
Jiang, Q., Elson-Schwab, I., Courtemanche, C. & Ames, B. N. (2000). Gamma-tocopherol and
its major metabolite, in contrast to alpha-tocopherol, inhibit cyclooxygenase activity in macrophages and epithelial cells. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 97(21), 11494-11499.
Jordan, K. G. (2002). What’s Wrong with Vitamin E? Life Extension. Retrieved from:
Moyad, M. A., Brumfield, S. K. & Pienta, K. J. (1999). Vitamin E, alpha- and gamma-
tocopherol, and prostate cancer. Seminars in Urologic Oncology, 17(2), 85-90.
National Institutes of Health. (2011). Dietary Supplement Fact Sheet: Vitamin E. Retrieved
Nesaretnam, K., Meganthan, P., Veerasenan, S. D. & Selvadurary, K. R. (2012). Tocotrienols
and breast cancer: the evidence to date. Genes Nutr, 7, 3-9.
Packer, L. Weber, S. U. & Rimbach, G. (2001). Molecular aspects of alpha-tocotrienol
antioxidant action and cell signaling. Journal of Nutrition, 131(2), 369S-373S.
Sylvester, P. W. & Shah, S. J. (2005). Mechanisms mediating the antiproliferative and apoptotic
effects of vitamin E in mammary cancer cells. Frontiers in Bioscience, 10, 699-709.
Sylvester, P. W., Kaddoumi, A., Nazzal, S. & El Sayed, K. A. (2010). The value of tocotrienols
in the prevention and treatment of cancer. Journal of the American College of Nutrition, 29(3), 3245-3335.
Viola, V., Pilolli, F., Piroddi, M., Pierpaoli, E., Orlando, F., Provinciali, M., Betti, M., Mazzini,
F. & Galli, F. (2012). Why tocotrienols work better: insights into the in vitro anti-cancer mechanism of vitamin E. Genes Nutr, 7, 29-41.